Science

Study Guide
Unit C

Chapter 1
1.1
Archaea, Protists and Bacteria are kingdoms which are consider mostly microscopic.
Three groups were Archaea is found:
Methanogens: Archaea die if they are exposed to oxygen.
Thermophiles: May be found in extreme temperatures.
Halophiles: can be found in extremely salty waters.
Different types of Bacteria:
Producers: are food sources for organism that cannot make their own food.
Decomposers: get energy by breaking down materials in dead organisms.
Parasites: organisms that harm their host.
How can bacteria be Helpful and Harmful to humans?
Harmful: can cause a lot of disease and can cause poise in your body.
Helpful: Bacteria in sewage system help make the water clean enough to be release into rivers or oceans. Also, Bacteria inside the root nodules of soybean plants convert nitrogen into a form the plant can use.
Differences and Similarities between Archaea and Bacteria:
Similarities: They both don’t have nucleus, they both have simple structures and they are prokaryotes.
Differences: Archaea can survive in extreme conditions while Bacteria can’t.
Different shapes of Bacteria:
Spiral-shaped bacteria by their external shapes.
Rod-shaped bacteria may occur singly or in chains.
Round-shaped bacteria may occur singly or in pairs, chains or clusters.
1.2
How are viruses organized?
Viruses are organized by Capsid covering the genetic material.
Host cell is the cells that viruses infect in order to make copies.
Name two differences between Viruses and Bacteria:
Bacteria can reproduce while viruses cannot. Also, Viruses are not considered a living thing because they can’t grow and can’t respond to changes in the environment.
Viruses may harm host cell.
1.4
Characteristics of Protists:
Live in moist environments
All have a nuclei
Most are single-celled
Three classifications in which protists get their energy:
Algaea: Plant like protists that get sunlight energy.
Protozoa: Animal like protists. Get their energy by ingesting food.
Decomposers: Fungus like protists. Break down material and absorb them as energy source.


Chapter 2
2.1
Multicellular Organisms:
Levels of Organization: Cells-> Specialized Cells-> Tissues-> Organ-> Organ System-> Organism.
Adaptation: The changes in behavior of an organism to become more suited to an environment.
Sexually and Asexually Reproduction (Advantages and Disadvantages):
Sexually: The genetic material of 2 parents and slower.
Asexually: The genetic material of 1 parent and faster.
2.2
Plants: How they capture energy? How they reproduce?
Plants capture energy from sunlight and convert it to chemical energy through the process of Photosyntesis.
Plants reproduce sexually by Pollination and Fertilization.
The importance of Plants and their response to the environment:
Plants are very important to humans because they produce energy, oxygen and other materials.
Plants respond to the environment by Light, gravity and touch.
Autotroph: is another name for plants.

2.3
Animals : How do they get their energy?
Animals get their energy by consuming others.
Heterotrophs: is an organism that they feed on others.
Types of diets:
Carnivores: feeds on other animals.
Omnivores: feed on both plants and animals.
Hervabor: feed on plants or algae.
Behavior: Any observable response to stimulus.
Reproduction of Animals: Most animals reproduce sexually.
Predator/Prey:
Predator: Is an animal that hunts other animals for food.
Prey: An animal that is hunted by another animal as a source of food.
Migration: is the movement of animals to a different region in response to changes in the environment.
Hibernation: Is a sleepwalk state that lasts for an extended time period.
2.4
Fungi: Hyphae? Level of Organization? Reproduction? Spore? What kinds of fungi are there? How can they be both helpful and harmful? What is lichen?
Hyphae: is the body of fungi.
Specialized cells.
Through spores.
Spore is a special form of reproduction.
Types of Fungi: Molds, mushrooms and yeast.
Helpful: for antibiotics
Harmful: Spoil foods.
Lichen: a combination of fungi and algae.


Chapter 3
3.1
Why are animals so important to flowers?
Because it helps pollinate and spread the seeds.
Common characteristics of a plant:
Plants are multicellular
A plant cell has a nucleus and is surrounded by a cell wall
Plants are producers. They capture sunlight energy
Plant life cycles are divided into 2 stages.
Two plant systems:
Root- underground, absorbs nutrients and water.
Shoot- above ground, leaves and stems, distribute energy throughout the plant.
Vascular system made up of two tissues:
Xylem- transports water and nutrients up from the roots
Phloem- transports sugar and other energy rich compound made in the shoot system to the rest of the plant.
Stomata- control the gas exchanging in a plant. Also controls transpiration.
Transpiration- the movements of water vapor out of a plant into the air.
3 functions of stem:
Structural support
Energy storage
Transportation of materials between root and shoot.
3.2
Vascular plants are ferns and you can notice how tall they can grow.
Non-vascular are liverworts and are life-size (small).
Differences & Similarities between Mosses and Ferns:
Differences:
Ferns are vascular while Mosses are non-vascular.
Mosses stay small where as Ferns grow taller.
Mosses have simple root, stems and leaves where as ferns have much larger and developed roots, stems and leaves.
Similarities
Reproduce by spores
Both have a two part cycle
Can reproduce asexually.
Differences between Mosses and Plants:
Mosses: Reproduce asexually through spores, don’t have a vascular system
Plants: Reproduce by seeds. Have a vascular system.
3.3
Differences & Similarities between Seeds and Spores
Differences
Seeds have multicellular embryo inside while spores are made up of single cell.
Seeds contain supply for nutrients where as spores don’t.
Seeds can be spread by wind, animals or water while, seeds are mostly carried by wind.
Similarities
Both types of adaptations
Made possible for plants to reproduce
Have protective coating
Can grow into a new plant
Life cycle of a Pine Tree
Meiosis: Meiosis occurs inside the cones, producing sperm and egg cells.
Pollination: Male cones release pollen into the air. A pollen grain sticks to the scales of a female cone, and a pollen tube begins to grow.
Fertilization: Sperm move through the pollen tube to fertilize one of the egg.
Seeds: Each fertilized egg becomes an embryo in a seed. The cone opens and the seeds are released.
Embryo: An underdeveloped form of an organism
Germination: is the beginning of growth of a new plant from a spore or a seed.
Gymnosperm: Plants that produce seeds. Example: Naked seed.
3.4
Angiosperm: a seed plant that produces flowers and fruit. Example: Covered Seed.
Flower: is the reproductive structure of an angiosperm. (It has both female and male cells.)
Fruit: The fertilized ovary of a flowering plant that contains seed.

Chapter 4
4.1
Invertebrates: animals that don’t have backbones.
6 groups of invertebrates:
Sponges, cnidarians, worms, mollusks, echinoderms and arthropods.
Characteristics of Sponges:
Sessile in adulthood and mobile in larva stage.
Filter feeders.
Reproduce asexually by budding and sexually by gamete fertilization.
Only made up of specialized cells.
Sessile: the quality of being attached to one spot; not free moving.
Larva: is an immature form of an organism that is different from the parent.
Characteristics of Cnidarians:
Tentacles with stinging cells called nematocyst.
Can reproduce both sexually and asexually by budding.
Bodies made up of flexible layers of tissues and tentacles.
Simple muscle system for movement
Examples: jellyfish and sea anemones.
Characteristics of worms:
Bilateral body plan (segmented, round and flat).
Simple organs
Take in oxygen; dissolve in water through their skin.
4.3
Characteristics of Mollusks:
Muscular foot that allows for mobility, mantle.
Soft body
ORGANIZATION: Well developed organ system
Examples: Clams, oysters, snails, octopus, squid and slug.
Types: Bivalve, Gastropods and Cephalopods.
4.4
Characteristics of Arthropods:
Segmented body with outer skeleton.
Largest group of invertebrates.
Outer covering made up of chitin called Exoskeleton.
Exoskeleton: adaptation that gives arthropods the ability to live in many different environments.
Molting: A process in which an arthropod must shed its exoskeleton as it grows.
Types of Arthropods:
Insects – Crustaceans – Arachnids

Metamorphosis:
3stages:
Larva- eat
Pupa- undergo transformation
Adulthood-Reproduction

Chapter 5

5.1
All vertebrate animals have endoskeleton which includes backbones.
Most vertebrates are fish.
Fish are the most diverse group of vertebrates.
3 adaptations that suit fish for life in water:
Gills: remove oxygen from water and exchange it for carbon dioxide in the fish’s blood.
Lateral line: is an organ in the sensory system that allows fish to sense objects and organisms that are nearby.
Swim bladder: allows the fish to adjust how high or low it floats.
3 types of fish:
Jawless: Tube like bodies, attached to animals and suck out flesh and fluids and digestive system with no stomach.
Examples: Lampreys and hagfish.

Cartilaginous: Skeletons have cartilage and eat small organisms.
Examples: Sharks and skates.

Bony: Have scales and skeleton made of hard bone.
Examples: Tuna and goldfish.
Fish reproduce sexually.
5.2
3 Adaptations that allowed Amphibians survive on land:
Lungs, limbs and sensory organs.

2 Adaptations that allow Reptiles live on land:
Scales and sensory organs.
Differences and Similarities between Amphibians & Reptiles.
Differences: Amphibians lay eggs in water and obtain oxygen through their moist skin. Reptiles have tough, dry skin covered by scales and lay eggs on land.
Similarities: The both have 2 pairs of legs, for total of 4 limbs. They have lungs. They have sensory organs adapted on land. They’re both Ectotherms.
Ectotherms: Animals whose body temperatures change with environmental conditions.
5.3
Characteristics of Birds:
They have beak and feathers.
They have 4 limbs, 2 scaly legs and 2 wings.
Their eggs have hard shells.
They are Endotherms.
Endotherms: animals that maintain a constant body temperature.
Benefits of flight:
Finding food
Makes migration possible
Defense mechanism (escape from predator.)
5.4
Mammals are the most divers animal group.
Examples: Mice, cows, elephants and chimpanzees.
Characteristics of mammals:
All have hair during some part of their lives.
Most of them have teeth specialized for consuming food.
All produce milk, with which they feed their young.
Mammals are endotherms: They use some of the food they consume to generate body heat.
3 functions of hair:
Self defense
Sensory hairs.(sense of touch)
Porcupines(self defense)
2 ways that body fat functions in mammals:
Storage place for energy
Regulates body temperature.
Mammals have reproductive adaptations:
They reproduce asexually.
Fertilization occurs internally in mammals.
Organ placenta that transports nutrients, water and oxygen to the mother’s blood to develop the embryo.
Gestation: the time when a mammal is developing inside its mother. It ends when the young animal has grown.

Unit D
Chapter 1

1. Differences between biotic and abiotic factors. Examples.
-Biotic: are living things.
-Abiotic: non-living things.
Examples of Abiotic: Temperature(air), water, soil and light.
2. Three important cycles in ecosystem:
Water, Nitrogen and Carbon.
3. How do plants obtain the nitrogen they need from their environment?
Bacteria in the soil convert nitrogen gas into nitrogen compounds; plant roots absorb these compounds from the soil. Lightning converts nitrogen gas into usuable compounds that fell to the surface with precipitation.

4. Describe the role of producers, consumers, and decomposers within an ecosystem:
-Producers: produce usuable energy and provide energy to organisms that consume it.
-Consumers: get energy by ingesting food.
-Decomposers: break down organic materials in orger to get energy.

5. Differences between food web and food chain:
Food web: provide a more complete picture of the feeding relationships, among organisms in an ecosystem,
Food chain: describes the feeding relationship between a producer and a single chain of consumers in an ecosystem.

6. Energy pyramids. How tertiary consumer differ from primary consumer?
(Bottom-Top) Producers-Primary-Secondary- Tertiary
Example: Grass-worm-chicken-human
Primary is an animal that gets all its energy from vegetation, where as Secondary consumer is an animal that eats the primary consumers.

7. Biomes are areas of the earth that are similar in climate and that have similar types of plants and animals.

8. There are six major land biomes: Tundra, taiga, grassland, desert, temperature forest and tropical forest.
There are also aquatic biomes:
Freshwater biomes: Include lakes and ponds, rivers and streams, and estuaries.
Marine biomes: Include open ocean, coastal, and deep ocean.

9. Six major land biomes:
Tundra- Cold temperatures. Very little precipitation <25. Very little vegetation , little biodiversity.
Taiga- Long cold winters and short cool summers, mean slow decomposition. Have coniferous trees. More precipitation.
Grassland-Occur in middle latitudes.Hot summers. Support seed-eating rodents. Don’t get enough precipitation.
Desert- Climate varies: But all are Dry.Cactus(plants). Don’t get enough precipitation. Found in Middle latitudes.
Tropical Rainforest: Most precipitation. Most biodiversity,The soil is poor in nutrients.
Temperature Forest: Support deciduos trees. 75-150 cm precipitation.

How does this affect the diversity of life within each biome?
It affects the diversity of life because since the diversity of life needs plants in order to survive; the climate dictates whether or not plants can survive in an area.

Chapter 2
1.For two individuals organisms to be considered of the same species, they must be able to reproduce. This means that their offspring should also be able to produce offspring.
2. Population- refers to a group of individual of the same species living in a certain area.
3. Habitat- refers to the actual location where organisms live. Also, is the place were an organism should be able to completely meet their heeds.
4. Niche- is the role that an organism plays with its habitat.
5. Community- refers to a group of populations that live in the same area. They’re made up of populations of different organisms that all share the same habitat.
6. Levels in the environment:
Organism: is a part of a larger population of members of the same species.
Population: a part of a larger community made up of different population of different species of orgs,
Community: is made up of the living components of the ecosystem in which different organisms interact with each other.
Ecosystem: Living and non-living organisms interact to forrm a stable system.
Biome: Describes generally the climate and types of plants that are found in similar places around the world.

The numbers of individuals from smaller to bigger:
Organism>Population>Community>Ecosystem>Biome
7. Interactions between animals:
Predator and prey relationship, competition(resources, space, mate), cooperation, symbiotic relationships.
Competition- the struggle between individuals or different populations for a limited resource.
Cooperation- is an interaction in which organisms work in a way that benefits them all.

Examples of symbiotic relationships:
Mutualism- Both organisms are benefiting from interaction.
Commensalism- One organism benefits while the other is left unaffected.
Parasitism- One organism benefits while the other gets hurt.

Chapter 3
3.1
Human Population Growth:
People are living longer as a result of improving health care and nutrition.
The dotted line on the graph of human population growth shows: a projection which helps us predict how the population will grow in the future.
Carrying capacity : is the maximum size that a population can reach in an ecosystem.
Liming factors for biological populations are : food, water and space.
Four pressures placed on ecosystems by an increasing human population are:

Resources: The demand of resources in a particular area.
Urban growth: As the urban city grows people demand for resources, so that can affect since more people go to live there and resouces can get used up.
Expanding land use: Natural habitats are being destroyed.
Waste disposal: Affects by the amount of waste that is left behind. The water gets treated before being recycled with harmful substances. Those chemicals, get washed into lakes and rivers.

Three ways that humas dispose of waste: Landfills, Incineration and Waste water.
Four ways that increased population can affect ecosystems are:
Demand for resources in a particular area.
Natural habitats are destroyed
The loss of productive farmland
Soil that was held in place by tree roots can wash into lakes and rivers.
Natural Resource: is any type of material or energy that humans use to meet their needs.
Natural resources that humans take from their environment: water, food, wood, stone, metal and minerals. Clean fresh water is an important resource.
Population Density: the measure if the number of people in a given area.
In cities, buldings are spaced close together, so the population density get higher.
The lower the population density, the less pressure there is on the environment.
About half of the population lives in urban, or city areas.


3.2
Renewable resource: is a resource that can be used over and over again. Examples: sunlight energy, water and trees.
Nonrenewable resource: is a resource that cannot be replaced or at least not fast enough for human purposes. Examples: oil, coal, natural gas, gold and silver.

If coal and oil were originally plant matter and plants are considered to be renewable, then why are coal and oil considered nonrenewable?
Because they are being consumed or used up faster than it is being restored or replaced.
Pollution: any substance that harms air, land, or water.
Biodiversity: refers to the number and variety of living things in an ecosystem.
Some sources of air pollution that can contribute to acid rain are: vehicles, factories and power plants.
Four different sources of water pollution:
Oil spills, chemical runoff, soil erosion, introduction of waste water.

Water pollution can affect all of the ecosystem because any disturbcane to any part of it can throw the whole balance of it off which will affect everything whithin it.
Pollution move from land to water some chemical pollutants can runoff land and into a body of water or they can evaporate from the earth’s surface and dissolve into rain droplets in the atmosphere and come back down as acid rain.
The movement of pollutants through a system
I would describe it in the way that pollutants seem to move in a cycle through a system.
Air and water pollution harm the earth.
Air pollution causes acid rain because of vehicles and factories; Water pollution cause contamination of water which poisons fish and other species.
Biodiversity: is the measure of how rich and varied an ecosystem is, in general terms ecosystem higher in biodiversity are thought to be more stable.
Human activities affect biodiversity by reducing the amount of living space as well as resources available in a habitat that sustains many species, creating more competition between populations.
Invasive species: are species that move into a new area and replace native species by taking up its living space and resources.
3.3
Conservation: the process of saving or protecting natural resource.
Three federal laws are:
Endangered Species Act
Clean air act
Clean Water act.
They help by saving endangered species.
EPA stands for The Environmental Protection Agency and it helps by enforcing all federal environmental laws.
Superfund Program: a program that identifies dangerous areas and to clean up the worst sites.
Sustainable: is a way of living and doing business that use natural resources without using them up.
Sustainable practices: Using solar energy, use natural fertilizers and practice conservation tillage.
Two Sustainable practices in the conservation farming: Conservation tillage and reject fertilizers and peticides made from fossil fuels.
Natural Fertilizers are another source of energy other than fossil fuels.
Mass transit like light rail helps reduce traffic congestion, air pollution, and noise pollution.
Alternative energy source: refers to the source that we can use in order to prevent our natural resources to get used up. Examples: water energy and wind energy.

JP's Mash-up

JP's mash up was very interesting. I liked how he created the transitions between his songs. When he repeated some words or beats he made sounds very good. I liked the song overall, but i would have liked it more if he made it longer. The mash-up was very good and you can see that he put effort into it. He should make mash-ups more often cause it was very good. Jp's mash-up was very good.

Music

A mash-up is a when two or more songs are mixed together to make a new one. So far, I've heard many mash-up. I have liked a lot of them, especially the one that mixes many songs together and it sounds very good. Good mash-ups are made with good rhythms and beats, they have to be well made. Some are not good because the beats are off, some are loud, and difficult. Mash-up artists are musicians, because they need to listen to the beats, put them together and make a good song. One of the ones I've heard is dj earworm. He is very famous because of the big mash-ups he has made. As you can see, mash-ups take skill, and are very entertaining.

Another musician that makes good music is dj dangermouse. He writes songs, and produces them. He is very famous now. One of the interesting albums he has created is the grey album. It is a mixture of The Black Album and The White Album. It is just music, although dj dangermouse never asked fo permission to use the content of the beatles. I think that there is nothing wrong with that, but there was a lot of controversy. Dj dangermouse was just making a mash-up, he was just making music.

Rain forest destruction.

Nowadays, people cut many trees for many reasons ad purposes. Some people make them into paper. Other people fabric furniture and doors, and others just use it for whatever they need it. The problem is that people don't realize that they are affecting the world by cutting these trees. Many problems occur because of the forests people are cutting. They don't only affect us humans, it affects othes organisms, and Earth. This serious environmental problem needs to be stopped.

One of the big problems destroying forests causes is that it is getting rid of many trees, and soon there will barely be trees. This affects some organisms because they need oxygen to be able to survive. The less trees there are, the less amount of oxygen will be produced. Everyday, trees are being cut down, there are much less trees every year. Accordingly, every minute, 6 football fields of trees are cut down. If humans keep cutting trees at this rate, soon enough Earth will have no trees. This is something very serious for earth and its organisms, and that is why it has to be stopped.

The other reason is because it kills many organisms. Cutting trees does't only affect animals, it affects many other oraganisms. Some of these are insects, plants, and even humans! Many animals are becoming extinct and some are already extinct, we are killing organisms! The same thing will happen to us if we keep cutting trees. Trees hold the soil in place with their roots, but when they get cut down the ecosystem changes, the place is not the same. Things become unstable, birds lose their homes, animals die, and plants get crushed with each tree cut down. Trees need to be left alone, and humans should start worrying more about them.



As a final point, people need to start thinking about destroying forests. This is because it can lead to many consequences, and we don't want that to happen. Cutting trees will affect many organisms in the world, and it may kill many. There are methods to balance the amount of trees being cut by planting one each time you cut a tree. This method may help, but the ecosystem will still not be the same. There are also many methods that can help. People just have to think of ideas to help the earth and stop forest destruction. Rain forest destruction must be stopped.

this chart is a very good representation for various reasons. It is good, because it shows all the subjects in my typing tracker in an accurate way, and I can see if my results are better.

This chart is also a good presentation. It shows my Accuracy over the time, there is all the scores recorded to show if I improve or not.

Finally, this is a good representation of how I type. It shows both the net speed, and the gross speed, this way I can compare if I type most of my words right, and if I improve.

Vacations

These vacations were very nice. I had really good time in these vacations. Most of the time I was with my family. I went to Guadalajara and had a cousin baptism. It was very fun, first there was a mass, and then there was a party. We had a great time, there was very good food, and we were all together having fun. The baptism party was fun. This time in my vacations were awesome.

I also had another fun day in Guadalajara. We had a christmas exchange. All my family was in my cousins house, and we had a great time. We had to describe the person we were giving the gift to with a drawing. I had a very pleasent time, and I received an xbox game. After this we had dinner and we watched some fireworks that my cousin and uncle where lighting up in the backyard, they were very bright and all the neighberhood stood to watch. The christmas exchange was fantastic. I had a very good time in Guadalajara. I am looking forward for the next break.